Language Learning Technologies for K-12 Teachers : Lesson 1 (printer-friendly version)
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Chapter 1
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Joyce Nutta talking about the ELT Advantage course An Introduction to Language Learning Technologies for K-12 Teachers (videoscript) "Hello, my name is Joyce Nutta. Welcome to the ELT Advantage course An Introduction to Language Learning Technologies for K-12 Teachers. In this course we will explore technologies that support language development as well as academic achievement for K-12 English language learners (ELLs).
The course first explores why language learning technologies can be effective teaching tools, and what types of technologies support ELLs' learning for what purposes. Then we will examine how to select and use various language learning technologies.
Much of the course will focus on technologies that support English language development and communication skills, such as dedicated software programs, websites, and other technology resources. In addition, you'll learn how technologies that were developed for other purposes, such as word processing, can be used in targeted ways to promote English language development.
The technologies included in this course are, for the most part, teacher-friendly, intuitive, and easy to use. If you can handle word processing, then you can easily make your way through the basic functions of the technologies presented in this course!
The course also addresses certain issues that are specific to the United States, such as meeting state and national standards; however, most of the material in the course is applicable to teaching English in other countries as well."
Joyce Nutta talking about building an instructional framework for language learning technologies (videoscript) "This lesson explores the instructional framework, or purposes, for using language learning technologies to teach K-12 English language learners (ELLs). Teachers of ELLs have two general goals: (1) To support English language acquisition; and (2) To support achievement in academic subjects. We'll learn about three communication elements that are fundamental to acquiring a second language: input, interaction, and output. We will also learn about content-based instruction, an approach to language teaching that supports English language development as well as the goal of mastery of subject area content."
Language learning technology: Where do you start?
Language learning technologies (LLTs)have played an important role in teaching and learning English as a Second Language (ESL) and foreign languages since the 1950s. Language study in the past included listening to dialogues on vinyl records at home or on reel-to-reel tapes in the language lab at school. Now students can watch and listen to streaming video over the Internet or use Web logs (blogs) to develop their writing skills, any place, any time!
Today's teachers of English language learners (ELLs) are fortunate to have a vast array of options in language learning technologies. However, having so many choices can be overwhelming and many teachers don't know where to start. If teachers understand how learners acquire a second language, they already know the most important information to guide them in using technology to promote language learning. Another way to think about this is that teaching a language instructor how to use instructional technology is simpler than teaching a technology instructor how to teach language! So, let's start with an overview of why various technologies meet the criteria for optimal language learning conditions.
Why should language teachers use LLTs?
K-12 teachers of ELLs have two main instructional goals: 1) to support their students' acquisition of English; and 2) to support their students' mastery of academic content. Fortunately, the two goals are mutually beneficial. In order to make a subject comprehensible to ELLs, teachers must create conditions that also support language learning. An example is showing how to do something, like making peanut butter, while giving the directions in English. And of course, the more English ELLs acquire, the better they will comprehend subject matter taught in English. Let's look at each of these goals a little more closely.Acquisition of English
Depending on the context of instruction, teachers of ELLs may focus primarily on their students' acquisition of English rather than mastery of academic content. For example, language acquisition may be the teachers' main focus in pull-out ESL language arts classes. At times it may be the main focus of a teacher in, for example, a second grade self-contained class whose students are all ELLs. It may be a secondary goal of a fifth grade classroom teacher with one ELL student among a class of native speakers of English. In that case, the teacher may be more concerned with helping the ELL comprehend instruction and keep up with the other students.
Academic achievement
Most of this course is geared toward the K-12 ESL teacher whose main focus is English language acquisition.However, all ESL teachers should understand how the many resources that are easily available in multiple languages and modalities can help ELLs learn various subjects.
As the information technology revolution takes hold across the globe, more opportunities to individualize instruction arise. For example, a secondary ELL student who is learning about the Second World War doesn't have to depend only on reading the textbook or listening to her teacher's lectures.
She can access a multitude of WWII websites with images and graphics, such as battle maps, illustrated timelines, and video clips of documentaries. In addition, she can read specific facts about World War II in her native language by Googling the subject (Google searches for websites in many languages).
Chapter 2
Learning a Second Language: Critical ElementsHow successful someone is at learning a second language depends on many factors. Some learn quickly, while others may take more time. Some never exceed a basic level of communication, while others reach near-native proficiency. Some learn English without formally studying the language, but others, notably those living in non-English-speaking countries, learn entirely from classroom study. The process of learning another language is complex. One body of scientific research into this process has found three critical elements that affect second language acquisition: input, interaction, and output.
Let's look at these elements in an example. Imagine you want to learn an unfamiliar language, say Basque.
Example of input
If you listened to a radio news broadcast in Basque for a week, on day seven you probably wouldn't be able to understand Basque any better than you did on day one. In other words, the input would not be not comprehensible. Input can be made comprehensible through various means, which will be explained in the next chapter.Example of interaction
Imagine that you are face-to-face with a Basque speaker, and she needs you to understand something important. She might say something, and you might respond with a quizzical look on your face. Then she might try to find another way to get the meaning across, such as point to a place on a map and hold her palms up, as if to say, "where." In that situation, you are interacting with another person to understand information.
Example of output
Think of yourself attempting to convey a simple message to the Basque speaker. While you both were looking at the map, she repeated a word in Basque and held her thumb and index finger close together. You think that word means near. When she seems to be asking you how far to her destination, you know that she is near, so you repeat the word in Basque. By saying the word, you have not only understood the meaning but have also begun speaking Basque. That is output.It would be very difficult for you to learn Basque unless you had good quality input, interaction, and output in the language. The next chapter looks at these elements in more detail.
Scaffolding input, interaction, and output
Planning your instruction to provide a scaffolding, or structure, of input, interaction, and output for ELLs is a best practice for ESL teachers. Put simply, scaffolding is providing support that enables the learner to do something that she could not do without it.
Chapter 3
Input, Interaction, and Output: A Closer LookInput
What does input look like in the K-12 classroom? From a teaching perspective, input is the information you convey to your students. You can also think of input as your message.Context, or non-verbal clues
For second language learners, input is clearer if it is delivered in ways that go beyond only verbal expression. If you are teaching about tides and currents, poor input for the ELL student would be verbally lecturing or explaining the subject. Better input would be to show pictures and diagrams that are labeled or perhaps show a video animation of the phenomena while saying the appropriate vocabulary. In other words, providing a lot of non-verbal context helps to make the input comprehensible.Adjusting verbal communication
In addition to non-verbal aspects of quality input, teachers can adjust verbal presentations in class to can make the message more comprehensible. An important way to make input understandable to ELLs is to be sure that the language used to convey the message is targeted to their level of comprehension. Krashen (1985) asserts that being exposed to comprehensible input that is merely one step above the learner's current knowledge and use of English grammar and vocabulary is the most important factor in developing English proficiency.Adjusting verbal input for levels of proficiency
Developing proficiency in a second language can be seen as a continuum from being monolingual to becoming fully bilingual. The progression across this continuum is incremental, adding new words and grammatical structures in the learner's repertoire until she reaches near-native proficiency. This continuum can be divided in different ways. For our purposes, we will use three basic levels: beginning, intermediate, and advanced.Beginning students typically understand concrete nouns and verbs (table, walk), common phrases (How are you?) and simple sentences using common terms (Mary's dog ran to its house vs. The chocolate Labrador, who belonged to Mary, sprinted to its dwelling). Just as you wouldn't speak to a teenager the same way you would to a kindergartner, you wouldn't speak in the same way to a beginning level speaker as an advanced one. Of course, this doesn't mean that you speak to a beginning student like a child (a beginning student could be an adult or a child)! Modifying your language based on your students' level of English proficiency is a skill that develops over time. For more information on levels of proficiency, see the Resources section at the end of this lesson.
Interaction
As 21st century educators, we have come a long way from the "sage on the stage" approach to teaching. Today's classroom includes a variety of activities that pair and group students in purposeful ways. Of course, as teachers we also interact with students, often individually. Both of these types of interaction are beneficial to ELLs because they provide opportunities for what is called "negotiation of meaning."Negotiation of meaning
Negotiation of meaning (Pica, 1994) helps to link up the message that the speaker intends to convey with the message the listener receives. The speaker may say "give me the scissors" but the listener, who is a beginning level ELL, may not know what the word scissors means. The listener then shows that she did not understand by saying, "give me…?" and makes a confused expression. The speaker realizes that the listener doesn't understand the word scissors, so she extends her index and middle fingers and opens and closes them. Once the listener goes to her desk and brings the scissors to the speaker, the negotiation is complete and successful.Adjusting interaction for level of proficiency
When planning student-to-student or teacher-to-student interaction, keep this notion of negotiation of meaning in mind. As with tailoring input to ELL students' level of proficiency, targeting interaction activities to the needs of beginning, intermediate, and advanced ELLs is crucial. The mere fact that the ELL student can show confusion and request clarification in an interactive exchange makes the activity more comprehensible. However, to make the activity more appropriate for language development, the interaction should be supported or, to in educational terminology, scaffolded (Vygotsky, 1978).Adjusting interaction through scaffolding
Scaffolding an interactive exchange might include providing ELLs with common phrases to express confusion and request assistance (such as speaking more slowly, repeating an utterance, rephrasing, etc.). It might also involve explaining the need for these phrases to native speakers who will interact with the ELL students.The more opportunities that ELLs have to interact with others to communicate in English, the faster and better they will learn English. Having ELL students solve problems in pairs provides greater opportunities for each student to speak than having them listen to the teacher solve a problem. They can benefit from interacting with other ELLs in English or with native speakers of English.
Output
It's not enough for ELL students to receive input and to interact with others to understand or convey a message. A well rounded language development program provides ample opportunities for ELLs to produce output in English. But what exactly is output and how does it work?Output can be defined as verbal expression. For our purposes, verbal means both spoken and written language. Just like you couldn't learn to swim without getting in the water, you can't learn a language without expressing meaning in it. So, to learn to speak a language, you have to speak it, and to learn to write a language, you have to write it. The teacher's role in ensuring quality output is to set up situations that require students to speak or write.
Adjusting output for level of proficiency
As with input and interaction, the ELL student's level of proficiency is key for any output activity. For example, a good middle school teacher would not ask an advanced ELL student to write simple words in English next to their corresponding pictures. A scaffolded essay response to a question prompt would be more appropriate. Conversely, a good kindergarten teacher wouldn't ask a beginning ELL student to retell a fairy tale that the teacher read. Selecting and scaffolding the right type of output assignment is critical for language growth. If students are "pushed" to say or write something that is at or slightly beyond their current level of ability, they will be able to acquire new words and grammatical knowledge that will increase their English expression.Chapter 4
Content-Based InstructionIn the past, the field of teaching English a Second Language viewed English as both a subject to learn about and as a set of linguistic skills to master. Since then, the scope of teaching ESL has expanded to using content in other subjects to teach English.
Sheltered content
Instead of organizing ESL lessons according to grammar points that are presented in dialogues, a content-based instruction approach organizes the instruction around academic subjects such as Earth Science or World History. The instruction is typically "sheltered," which means that it is geared to the language levels of the ELL students (and is taught in self-contained, or stand-alone ESL classes). With sheltered content, the ELL students can learn new vocabulary and structures, as well as develop reading and writing skills in English, while learning about the subject area of focus. In a way, this is a buy-one-get-one-free approach to teaching English as a Second Language!Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
While learning how to make one's immediate needs known in a second language is primary, ELL students must go beyond this basic type of communication. Cummins (1980) distinguishes two types of language use that ELLs must develop: (1) Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), which refer to social language; and (2) Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).Academic language is structured differently from everyday communication. This is apparent in the difference between two friends gossiping versus a teacher explaining how a bill becomes a law. The first exchange includes commonly used words and phrases, but the second might use complex structures and vocabulary, such as subordinate clauses to show cause and effect, political terminology, etc. ELL students must acquire CALP in English to succeed academically, and content-based instruction is a bridge over which they can pass to attain full competence in CALP.
Techniques and methods of content-based instruction
The techniques used in sheltered content-based instruction translate well to mainstream instruction of ELLs (inclusion of one or more ELL students in a "regular" or non-ESL classroom). They include developing learners' skills in applying good language learning strategies, using concrete objects, visuals, and graphic organizers in instruction, and providing many opportunities for student-to-student interaction, such as cooperative learning.There are a variety of methods to guide teachers in content-based instruction, including CALLA, the SIOP model, and SDAIE. Please see the Follow-up Reading section at the end of this lesson for more information on these methods.
Chapter 5
How Instructional Technology Supports Ideal Learning Conditions for ELLsWhy use technology to teach ELLs?
The multiple demands on teachers seem to increase almost daily. One of the most pressing demands is teaching full classes of students who have a broad range of needs and abilities. Trying to balance these competing interests would be almost impossible without technology. Instructional technologies provide nearly endless resources that can be targeted to individual needs.Meeting individual needs in a large class
Teachers who have one or more ELL students in their mainstream classroom must perform a difficult juggling act. While meeting the needs of their native speakers, they must also ensure comprehensible instruction and language development for their ELL students. Sometimes these goals are compatible, such as with adding visuals and graphic organizers to a verbal explanation of a topic. Providing these enhancements does not detract from any student, and in fact offers more ways for all students to learn. In other cases, the language demands of a particular lesson may be well over the level of language proficiency of the ELL students, and class time cannot be taken up by slowing the pace of instruction and simplifying the language used in the explanations. Fortunately, technology can be a great help in these situations.How technology provides quality input
When teaching English language skills or academic subjects, enhancing and increasing non-verbal input can be more easily achieved with technology. Technology can improve comprehensibility of subject matter through enhanced context and target verbal input to the learner's proficiency level.Providing context
A great way to help ELL students develop reading skills through comprehending the main points of the text (i.e., written input) is to provide a concept map with visuals and key words of key points in the reading passage. Many teachers use a simple concept mapping program called Inspiration that includes a clip art library and point and click steps for showing relationships such as comparison and contrast, cause and effect, and hierarchy. Inspiration makes an elementary school version called Kidspiration, which pairs of students can use to map a reading to show their comprehension. Of course, if the reading is in a content area, such as Earth Science, the concept maps will also help the ELL learn the subject.
Screenshot from Inspiration 8 by Inspiration Software, Inc.Targeting verbal input to proficiency level
The other element of quality input is gearing verbal communication to the level of ELL students. There are numerous software programs that provide tutorials in language and content skills for ELL students at different levels of proficiency. In addition, free websites such as Dave's ESL Cafe provide drills and activities for language development, for beginners through advanced and beyond. English teachers, for example, can direct individual ELL students to work through exercises on completing sentences in the conditional tense while native speakers focus on more complex applications of the same language skill, such as writing an essay on the topic of "If I were president."
How technology provides quality interaction
Technology can also assist with structuring opportunities for ELLs to interact with others in meaningful ways, for example with team or pair computer-based activities and online communications.Cooperative learning and technology
One of the best ways to increase interaction is to pair students in a computer-based activity. Web Quests are a good example. In a Web Quest students carry out a task or solve a problem that requires gathering information from the Internet. The varied forms of information, including non-verbal components such as pictures, graphs, and video clips, can be a concrete point of departure for pair discussions.Computer-mediated communication
Real-time computer-mediated communication, such as text, audio, and video chats provide novel ways for ELLs to interact with others in English. Learners can also interact at their convenience through e-mail, bulletin boards, or programs that allow students to draft compositions and comment on/add to other students' compositions. These are great ways to provide more interaction targeted to the needs of the ELL student, whether in a non-English-speaking country or in an ESL environment.How technology provides quality output
Consider again the two goals of teaching ELLs, English language development and mastery of academic content in English. The notion of scaffolded, or supported, output applies to both goals and can be supported by various types of technology.Technology-mediated output in language development
Successful teachers of ELLs hold high expectations for their students' language development and constantly push them to higher levels of English proficiency. An important way to do this is through requiring them to produce increasingly complex spoken or written output in English. As with input and interaction, supporting language development through student oral and written output can be facilitated with technology.An example of technology-supported output for language development is software or Web-based programs that allow a student to listen to a multimedia storybook and then record himself reading the story. The student can then listen to segments of both versions, comparing pronunciation, intonation, and fluency to the model.
Technology-mediated output in content areas
When considering ELL students' mastery of academic content, output can demonstrate the student's comprehension and be used as a form of assessment. For example, beginning level ELL students studying plate tectonics cannot show comprehension of key points by writing a five paragraph essay. That type of output is beyond their level of proficiency in English. However, the teacher could direct the ELL student to view the diagrams and animations about plate tectonics on geology.com and then print unlabeled diagrams like the example here for the student to label with core, mantle, and crust.
Summary
In this lesson you learned that teachers of ELLs have two primary goals: English language development and mastery of academic content in English. To meet these goals, the teacher must orchestrate quality input, interaction, and output, targeted to the level of the student. Becoming knowledgeable about how these elements promote second language acquisition is the foundation of successful teaching of ELLs.
You also learned that instructional technology gives teachers many resources to provide quality, targeted input, interaction, and output. Sometimes teachers plan to incorporate technology prior to the lesson, and other times teachers work in the technology in response to needs that arise during instruction. Having a solid understanding of language learning technologies equips teachers to do both well.
In the next lesson, we will explore the various purposes of these language learning technology resources.
Next StepsAfter you finished this lesson, test your knowledge by taking a short, multiple-choice quiz. To access the quiz, click quizzes at the top or bottom of any page in this classroom. Select the quiz that corresponds to the lesson you have just completed. Then click submit. Good luck!
After the quiz, complete the short assignment that follows. This will allow you to practice what you have just learned. To access it, click assignments at the top or bottom of any page. Choose the appropriate lesson and follow the directions listed there.
Also, visit the discussion area to converse with your colleagues about the topics covered in this lesson. To access it, click discussion at the top or bottom of any page. Choose the appropriate lesson and follow the directions. You will be able to post on the discussion board until the 'close date' listed. After that date, you can read the discussions but not post.
Glossary
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS): Social language
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP): Academic language
Content-based instruction: An approach to second language teaching that uses academic content in English as the subject of study in order to develop English proficiency and learn the content simultaneously
English language learners (ELLs): Term for non-native speakers of English whose English language development is below native or near-native proficiency
Input: Language directed at the learner
Interaction: language used by the learner and one or more individuals in communication
Language learning technologies (LLTs): Technologies that support second language development through a focus on language (ESL or English language development) or on academic content (content-based instruction)
Negotiation of meaning: clarifying meaning through comprehension checks and requests for clarification
Output: the learner's language production
Scaffolding: support for the learner to complete a task that she cannot do without help
Sheltered content: academic content that is taught to non-native speakers through scaffolding input, interaction, and output, typically done in classes limited to ELLs so that the language level of the oral and written instruction can be tailored to the level of English proficiencyFollow-Up Reading
CALLA - Chamot, A.U. & O'Malley, J.M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
SIOP - Echevarria, J. & Short, D. (2000). Making content comprehensible for English language learners: The SIOP model. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Levels of proficiency: Starting, emerging, developing, expanding, bridging—TESOL Standards - TESOL (2006). Pre-K-12 English Language Proficiency Standards. Alexandria, VA.Bibliography
Cummins, J. (1980). The construct of language proficiency in bilingual education. In J.E. Alatis (Ed.) Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. New York: Longman.
Pica, T. (1994). Questions from the language classroom: Research perspectives. TESOL Quarterly, 28. pp.49-79.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlehofer (Eds.). Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G. Widdowson (pp. 125-144). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Supplementary Material
Content Instruction and ESOL
http://tapestry.usf.edu/Short/data/frameset/start.htmVideo lecture and resources on implementing the SIOP model.
SDAIE Specially Designed Academic Instruction In English information
http://www.rohac.com/sdaieinfo.htmOverview of the principles and practices of the SDAIE approach.
TESOL PreK-12 English Language Proficiency Standards
http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/sec_document.asp?CID=1186&DID=5349Overview of the English Language Proficiency Standards, including the five levels of language proficiency. Assignment
Write a description of 300 words or less of how you scaffold input, interaction, and output in your classroom, giving one example of each, as applicable. If you currently use technology to teach, in what ways do you use it to provide input, interaction, and output appropriate for your students? If you don't currently use technology, try to think of how you might use it to provide input, interaction, and output appropriate for your students.
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